Monday, September 30, 2019

Change Management Essay

New consultants are hired to help Riordan Manufacturing in creating a processing for monitoring client’s information that would involve all workers to utilize the same client’s administration process. In part one of this project the consultants would require evaluation of the organization’s intranet site and verification of information. This process would help them in creating an improved administration plan which would consist of many components. For example, proposal of a plan to help execute changes during the upcoming year and clarification of the evaluation processes while ensuring the modification plan is completed. In the second part of this project, the consultants will make a reference to a communication tactic for the proposed change and the effect that would potentially have on the organization. The consultants are to come up with a change management plan and a communication plan for Riordan Manufacturing. Section I: Change Management Plan Riordan Manufacturing is an organization that operates on a bureaucratic system. Separate divisions have managers who are reporting to higher up management. However, even these upper managers, eventually, would have to report to the president and CEO of the organization, Dr.  Michael Riordan. The bureaucracy has a system in place that is similar to the matrix system. Riordan Manufacturing divisions consist of people who carry out specific jobs and every division has its own informal systems, which are created by building working relations jointly. Riordan Manufacturing inspires workers to report any problem or issue that they might have directly to their superior. This would encourage every worker to openly deal with the administration, work in a great environment where interactions could be apparent and attitudes can be positive. Worker behavior would improve greatly because of the open door policy and open interaction because they would be able to express their concerns. When workers feel encouraged to express themselves at liberty, it increases the commitment to the organization and job satisfaction. Even though Riordan Manufacturing needs to create new client administration process, it should continue to accept the matrix structure that is currently in place. By creating a new client administration method it would enable everyone to assess the information of all clients. Retaining the existing matrix system would allow them to ontinue on improving team efforts to progress in the completion of the work that is expected of every division of the Riordan Manufacturing organization. Riordan Manufacturing is a plastics manufacturer with over 500 employees and it is headquartered San Jose (California), and has locations in Albany (Georgia), Pontiac (Michigan), and Hangzhou (China). Riordan Manufacturing products comprise plastic products, such as drink cans, custom-made components, as well as fan mechanisms. Their major clientele are auto and plane component, bottle, and appliance manufacturers, as well as a Department of Defense. To ensure that Riordan Manufacturing delivers these products to their clients, they must implement outstanding and positive worker behavior. Worker’s behavior affects they work performance and their reaction to their work environment, their managers, and clients. Riordan’s tradition comprises of fairness, self-confidence, commitment, imaginative and team-work oriented atmosphere, job performance evaluations, incentives, academic assistance, benefits, vacations, day care assistance, as well as the employees compensation insurance. Riordan appears to be a manufacturing organization that is trying to become a first choice for their customer as a plastic component provider. However, as many other organizations, Riordan Manufacturing could experience issues that would need to be addressed and modified. These issues could hinder the organization’s progress and improvement especially in today’s economy. For example, some workers are unable to deal with the changes and they could become reluctant to perform their jobs. Some employees are avoiding changes because of insufficient information on the changes that are being implemented, being taken out of their comfort zone, insecurity, personal views, job security, peer pressure, as well as a lack of confidence. Even though the employees could show resistance to the change managers would help them to deal with the situation and assist them during the transition to ensure that the implemented change becomes efficient. Managers could implement the change by relying information clearly, by being open, recognizing employees concerns, and respecting the employees. Managers should provide support by allowing them to have a face to face meeting in regards to the changes and explain the benefits of the changes by providing additional training. Also, managers must place the reluctant employees with others who are familiar with the changes that are being implemented. This would help the reluctant employees see that the changes would be worthwhile and beneficial to the organization and its advantages, as well as a possibility of their own jobs to become easier. With any change in management systems we will be expecting some resistance as discussed earlier in our presentation. Once the initiative to change is underway and in progress we will analyze the employees’ reaction to the interruption in their daily activates to identify areas that the employees may be having trouble integrating for the first 6 weeks. Allowing employees sufficient time to dissect and troubleshoot some of the unfamiliar process will give them the opportunity to challenge themselves for growth opportunities and additionally allowing them to develop noteworthy questions and concerns that will assist us to tailor the program to their individual needs. Most major changes in initiatives used to improve profitability normally fail due to incorrect guidance and project mismanagement expertise, which we intend to improve with our 12 month program that we call â€Å"Rehab†. Following the first six weeks of introduction the unveiling of our 40 hours of seminars will commence, which will be used to inform employees of how the system is more beneficial to them, and how the Data Management, Business intelligence, and Data Warehousing will be significantly more applicable to the end-user, which will increase their productivity that will additionally benefit the organization’s bottom-line. One key consideration that will be discussed with the employees is their drop in productivity during the first year of the Change Management implementation; we are fully aware that organizations don’t change – people change. Using our world renowned process takes time to fully be incorporated in the daily operations; we will be fully engaged onsite with our four member management team, who will be localized and embedded in your organization to assist all employees in-depth with this drop in performance for the duration of our contract. With over 25 years successfully working with companies of various sizes across the business sector, you can trust in our process methods to keep your business moving in a positive direction a while minimizing people risk. Prior to idea of making an improvement to our data management system we would depend on the accuracy of the employees, with the Data management system we will be able to track and monitor everything from Recordkeeping, monitoring, situational monitoring, and performance monitor. The improvements will allow us to do safe guard against violations of right by allowing access to documents externally, use data received to create lessons learned that we can use to train incoming staffers, build a better reputation for our stakeholders by giving them access to necessary information, and last but not least the ability form documents to be tampered will be drastically reduced. We are only looking at a successful change; the idea of failure is not foreseeable. Section II: Communication Plan  The form used to communicate a change to employees is just as important as the change and message in itself. In this case, the appropriate channel of communicating the change to the employees is a meeting with a PowerPoint presentation. The face to face communication will provide an opportunity for the employees to bring up concerns about the change and ask questions. The employees should be encouraged to be comfortable voicing their concerns. The PowerPoint presentation can be presented in order for everyone to see the goals, plans, and details of the change. These channels of communication will provide the employees with the information about the change while the person presenting it can offer reassurance and answers to questions. The group will have a visual to receive the message and the person who is presenting will be able to give face to face discussions regarding concerns and assurances. Potential barriers to communicating this change include the possibility of misinterpretation of some of the information presented, different point of view and expectations among the employees, and assumptions made by employees and presenter. Strategies for overcoming these barriers include the presenter encouraging people to ask questions, clarifying information, anticipating possible questions and asking those questions. The group needs to be comfortable asking questions and should be encouraged to do so. Any misinterpretations need to be clarified. And the person presenting can come up with questions that people will likely ask and bring them up in the discussion to encourage others to be involved in communication.

Sunday, September 29, 2019

Seven Deadly Sins

Memoir/ Reflection Essay The seven deadly sins are always view in a negative way. Well since they are considered sins I guess they will ways be viewed that way. Like Pride is the desire to be better than everyone and love only oneself. Wrath is to have uncontrollable feeling of hatred and anger. Greed is to have a very excessive or plundering desire and pursuit of wealth, status, and power. Gluttony is excessive desire for food, or its withholding from the needy. Sloth is the failure to apply your talents and gifts by being lazy. Lust is excessive thoughts or desires of a sexual nature. Envy is to be jealous of what someone or something you lack. But I think there is something good about the sins also. People never think about how these sins could be contributed into something good. Pride or Vanity is a dangerous yet sometimes helpful thing to have. It can help you show why your the right person for a job or why you deserve something more than someone else. But it can also lead to a lot of negative things as well. It can make you sound too full of yourself or make you sound cocky leading to people starting to find you annoying or even making them so jealous of you they start to hate you. So its on you to decide what is more important, either having the people you know and love hate you for what you have or on the other side having them love you for your accomplishments. I feel like vanity is the sin that could make you or break you depending on how you spin it. Wrath or as it's more commonly known Anger is a sin that people experience more with other people or things than just by themselves. I feel wrath is the most violent of the sins as it is the act of people hating other people and with hate people tend to hurt others either physically or emotionally out of rage or revenge. We have seen wrath at its worst when the Twin Towers were crashed into. People led from being depressed to being so mad that our military had a dramatic increase just because people wanted to get back at the third world countries involved. But in turn that anger also led to our country being more patriotic than ever before. We have had more support from our civilians because of this Wrathful feeling, So I feel wrath is a important part in everyday lives whether good or bad. Avarice or Greed is what most people see as the root of evil. It goes back to the story of Eden where Adam and Eve were tempted into eating the apple from the tree. But these days People are greedy for a variety of reasons, the most commonly being money. The second most common reason would tie into people just wanting more than everyone else. But sometimes that's not always a bad thing. I have seen people use greed to a good advantage. A prime example would be how greed led the economy to be great before this war. We wanted more so we spent more which led to people having more jobs and more work time to make the things we wanted to buy. So yes I think greed can be a evil thing but also as a great thing. Gluttony is a tricky sin to say the least. Most commonly seen as the act of eating too much, it is actually just when you over indulge in anything. You could over indulge in time spent on something specific like how much time you spent trying to beat a certain game or time spent arguing over a certain point. But when related to food you can see Gluttony when people eat too much food or when people add things to their food just to have a more satisfying taste instead of just eating to sustain life. I personally see gluttony as a growing satisfaction in peoples lives all around me. People love to eat, and again it can't be all that bad because it does still help out economy if we keep buying more and more food even if we don't need it. Sloth or better known as laziness is a sin everyone goes through at some point in everyday we live. Whether its not wanting to get up and do what we have to do or wasting time not pursuing things that we have the skills to do just because we don't want to use them. Personally I see sloth as the window to a wasted life. We all have things we wish we could do but are to slothful to start. I used to play a lot of instruments as a kid and now a days I don't play but i wonder if I did what could of happened. But again sloth, like every other sin is not always bad. Maybe your slothful while trying to think of details for something like a wedding or even a paper your writing. You waste all this time just thinking instead of rushing through it that it may actually turn out to be a very good piece of writing. some things in life just take a little waste of time to make sure everything's right. Lust is a very satisfying yet depressing sin to think about. It is the act of wanting someone or something so bad you do anything you can to get it. I have seen lust used all over this world and it can sometimes be a very scary thing. It can lead to false love or rape and it can also lead to dictatorships. Lust is something people all feel but have to learn to control as well. The story of Alexander The Great is a perfect example. He lusted for control and territory and through this lust he became one of the greatest kings back in the old days. Now I feel lust could be a good thing as well but only if used right. Maybe your lust for someone can lead you to find out that you actually can fall in love with that person. You just have to learn to control your feelings and your cravings to allow yourself to do so. Envy is the sin that can trick your mind so well that you can't tell right from wrong. I have seen people being so envious of another it utterly destroys them emotionally and sometimes even physically. To be jealous of what other people have and look like is something that goes through every persons mind. You may ask yourself â€Å"Why are they so much better looking than me? † or even â€Å"Why can't I have that? â€Å". In my life I have felt this way just as much as everyone else but it lead me to learn that life isn't about what you do or don't have, but rather what you earn or what you do with what you have instead. The only way you can truly live happy is to realize your not like everyone else. Your you and there is nothing wrong with that fact. Now Envy can be a good thing to though. Maybe your not doing anything with your life. Maybe your not going to school or don't have a job yet you see everyone else doing it so you get so jealous you decide to do it yourself. That's not a bad thing at all. So I have learned don't be envious, but just learn and do what needs to be done to make your life the way you want it to be. The seven deadly sins could have two observations about them; good and bad. So I think people shouldn’t always go by the negative views about something. Instead of seeing the glass half empty, they should see it half full. But yet again it is the seven deadly sins so no matter what they are always going to be view in a bad way.

Saturday, September 28, 2019

SWO Service Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

SWO Service - Case Study Example However, in recent years it is facing various problems related to maintaining sustainability of its business. It has acquired a substantial sales order for the upcoming six months but it needs to decide upon whether to expand its business further or not. This study discusses about the detailed company and industry analysis to have conclusive evidence to decide upon the sustainability of the business in future. First of all the key issues related to the company performance have been identified. Then the industry analysis has been performed which discusses about the internal and external business factors which have an impact on the company. Then the consumer analysis has been done which includes segmentation strategies and the product mix associated with each segments. Then the trade analysis, competitive analysis and external analysis of the company has also been done. An alternative analysis has been performed which discusses about the targeting of the particular segment consisting o f the mid-sized distributors and the relevant positioning and promotional strategies to be employed by the company. Lastly, a recommendation has been provided regarding the best strategy needed to be applied by the company to regain its competitive advantage in the market and have a sustainable growth and development in future. Table of Contents Problems and Analysis 5 Issues 5 Constraints 5 Objectives 5 Industry Analysis 5 Internal Factors 6 External Factors 6 Key Success Factors 7 Consumer Analysis 7 Trade Analysis 8 Competitive Analysis 9 External Analysis 9 Political Factors 10 Economical Factors 10 Technological Factors 10 Corporate Capabilities 11 Alternative Analysis 11 Recommendation 12 Works Cited 13 Problems and Analysis Issues SWO Service is experiencing different kinds of issues which are having a significant impact on the performance and growth of the company. The company has failed to generate revenues at a steady rate since its inception. The penetration pricing strat egy followed by the company initially helped it to increase its market share but now it is facing problems to successfully position its products and is losing sales on various grounds. Constraints The constraint that can be identified as regards to SWO Service is the financial constraint. It does not have adequate fund sources available to them to expand its business on a large scale. Objectives The personal objectives include more profit required by the owners of the company. It is in accordance with the company objective which is to decide upon expansion of its business to increase the profitability of the company. Industry Analysis In order to facilitate the formulation of a successful strategy and help in its decision making process regarding the sustainability of the business processes followed by SWO Service it requires to have a comprehensive analysis of the industry in which it is operating its business activities. Industry analysis actually involves identification of the ec onomic factors that helps a company to boost its performance and profitability in the operating industry (Palepu, and Healy 2-16). Industry analysis of SWO Service includes identification and analysis of its internal and external business environment which is explained below: Internal Factors Strengths George, one of the owners of SWO Service is one of its strength. George is experienced in the field of software industry and has the acumen of all different technical aspects of the software industry. Moreover SWO Service develops quality software which is acknowledged by the customers. Weaknesses The organizational structure of SWO Service is one of its major weaknesses. The various business activit

Friday, September 27, 2019

Coursework Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Coursework - Case Study Example As already mentioned, the business will serve organizations interested in optimizing their web rankings. It services will cover an extensive range of activities including on-site and off-site SEO services. During the first year of operations, focus will be on marketing aimed at building a strong client base. Other than conventional market practices, quality services to existing clients will form the basis of our services marketing initiative. The business will then expand to attain regional status and eventually global over time. During the first three years, the business will direct lots of resources towards marketing. A large portion of the content will be done in-house during these 3 years. This will however not be a problem considering that the stakeholders are experts in the field of the business. It major source of revenues will be offering of SEO services to website owners. However, it will also earn some revenues through advertisements and affiliate programs. The will officially be launched on the 16th of august with an initial capital investment of  £100,000. The projected sales revenue for the first 3 years will be  £10000,  £30000 EUR, and  £50000 in year 1, year 2 and year 3 respectively. These will however be discussed in detail in the financial section of the business plan. As already mentioned, XYZ Solutions will provide website owners with high impact e-marketing strategies. These services are meant to help organizations increase their web presence and reach out to more of their target audience. XYZ Solutions does not just attract traffic to the respective websites but rather attracts the right traffic with a potential of turning them into sales where sales is the prime objective of a site. The services are purely aimed at having client’s websites ranked high on search engines based on specific keywords. The organization applies both conventional and technical skills to

Thursday, September 26, 2019

Responsibility as a Core Value Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Responsibility as a Core Value - Essay Example Without responsibility, nothing can be achieved because people will look towards each other for action with no one taking action. The sphere of operation of every manager is defined by the allocation of duties and responsibilities. The duties and responsibility will define what actions the employee can take to solve the issue. Managers are leaders because they are endowed the powers and are given a defined responsibility in the business (Snoeyenbos and Humber). In this case, managers may be tasked with ensuring the welfare of the employee is enacted. The movie the smartest guy in the room highlights the necessity of taking responsibility in business and even politically. Responsibility in the film Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room The movie presents challenges faced in the organization if responsibility for the actions is not addressed effectively. The crucial issue depicted in the movie is scandals resulting from the loss of ethics and the power of greed. Despite the existence of fraud, the founder of the company tries to hide the problem by creating a different image. For workers, the company deals with them discriminatory by firing the bottom 15% performers. The strategy is used to increase competitiveness and taking of responsibility for individual performance. The level of competitiveness in the employees is improved by the strategy. However, the strategy does not factor in the role of the managers on the failure in employee performance. Judging by the action of the managers, it is evident that the employees are not accorded the support they require. In addition, the managers are bent on accumulating wealth. The lack of financial and political responsibility makes the whole process difficult and cumbersome for the shareholders. Lou Pai the CEO of the company resigns after stealing about $250 Million despite the department managed by him registering a loss of $1 billion. How can a company division be in losses while the manager of the division accrues a lot of wealth? The issue is straightforward; he does not have any responsibility for the failure of the division. Without responsibility, it is possible for the manager to steal from the company and not be charged. The case also is evident in the spending of the company finances, in gambling. Despite the firing of some individuals, they were not allowed to bear the financial responsibility. The use of public relations to hide the failures of the organization makes the situation complex (Snoeyenbos and Humber 56). Responsibility as a value and The Madoff Affair movie The movie is about Bernie Madoff and the investigation of Martin smith. Madoff is under investigation as the chief perpetrator of a massive financial fraud. Madoff is blamed for stealing $65 billion from investors. Compared to the Enron movie, this moves show the need for holding Madoff for the financial scandal that he instituted. The sentencing of Madoff to a prison term of 150 years marks the climax of the whole proce ss. The Ponzi scheme he operated defrauded investors of over $65 billion. C the sentencing of Madoff is a product of enforcing the responsibility value in the society. The effect of the fraud had a ripple effect in the economy. The success of the whole investigation dependent on the investigation

Wednesday, September 25, 2019

Anything to do with Microbology Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Anything to do with Microbology - Article Example Disease causes by this bacteria, tuberculosis is a major public health challenge and is currently in an epidemic state in several parts of the world. According to the World Health Organisation, 139 per 100,000 population through out the world suffer from tuberculosis. The highest number of cases are seen in Asia, followed by Africa. Two important contributing factors are human immunodeficiency virus and development of resistance of the bacteria to first line drugs. The main source of infection to the community are sputum positive pulmonary tuberculosis. Only 10 percent of individuals develop the clinical disease and the rest arrest the growth of the bacteria through adequate immune response. Some population-based studies have shown that some individuals are at increased risk of acquiring the infection when compared to others. Active transmission is mainly seen in crowded and household contacts. Acquisition is most common in young people. More than 85 percent of tuberculosis is pulmon ary tuberculosis. Tuberculosis is communicable and patients with pulmonary tuberculosis are the most important source of infection. When the tuberculosis bacillus presents in the body, it is phagocytosed by antigen presenting cells in the alveoli of human lungs. This initiates a protective immune response by the host. The genome of the bacillus helps in establishing latent or progressive infection in the host.

Tuesday, September 24, 2019

US Economic Situation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

US Economic Situation - Essay Example This essay discusses that  the problem lies in somewhere else. As the country is technically upgraded enough, the production technique they use in the industrial sector is mostly capital intensive. This leads to unemployment as the labour input is not extensively used in the production system. Nevertheless, the population of the country is not as high as the developing countries. Hence the unemployment rate is not so severe in this country. It has been found that the rate of unemployment in this country has remained at the level of 5.8 per cent for the last two years. The country has witnessed economic growth near about 5 per cent in the last quarter of this year.From this paper it is clear that  US economy is globally considered as a developed economy. However this paper will examine the amount of stress the country has witnessed in the path of development for the last two years. Globalisation has caused the integration of this economy with various developing as well as under de veloped and many other developed countries. The appreciation of the exchange rate causes low inflation and it influences the international trade in a greater extent. The United States achieves the score 76.2 in case of economic freedom. The freedom in business has fallen compared to the last year. However, control over the government spending has achieved modest gains compared to the recent past.  It has been found by the US officials that the unemployment rate of the country has fallen to 5.5 per cent in the last quarter.

Monday, September 23, 2019

Concentration camp Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Concentration camp - Essay Example The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum report on concentration camps reveals that â€Å"Between 1933 and 1945, Nazi Germany established about 20,000 camps to imprison its many millions of victims† (Nazi). The concentration camps of Nazi Germany were designed in various forms and did not all engage in the same type of activities. The first camp that was created in Nazi Germany was opened two months after Adolf Hitler took power in January 1933. The camp, called Dachau, was considered a triumph for the German people because the people were in need of order in their country (Bergen). This camp was considered a solution to the chaos that had previously existed. In bringing order to Germany, Hitler imprisoned political prisoners, who were communists, social democrats, or anyone who was against Hitler’s authority. Some of the prisoners were brutal convicts from traditional prisons who were given the power over other prisoners in order to make the job of the camp guards an easier task (Bergan). As the first prison, Dachau would be the experiment off of which the rest of the camps would then be tailored to fit the needs that the camp would be built to fulfill. According to Harold Marcuse, in his book, Legacies of Dachau: The Uses and Abuses of a Concentration Camp-2001 , â€Å"During the first weeks of the camp’s operation, the prisoners were not humiliated or mistreated, their heads were not shaved, they were not identified by numbers, and they were not forced to work† (22). However, the treatment would change in the months that followed. Marcuse states that by May of 1933, special rules had been put into place, and that â€Å"violence and terror were institutionalized as part of life in the camps† (22). By the end of May, records show that 12 prisoners had been killed or tortured to death (Marcuse 22). Dachau was becoming a template for the horrors that would follow in the various camps that would be built . After 1940, the

Sunday, September 22, 2019

Six feet of the country by Nadine Gordimer and No witchcraft for sale by Doris Lessing Essay Example for Free

Six feet of the country by Nadine Gordimer and No witchcraft for sale by Doris Lessing Essay What do these stories tell us about being black in Southern Africa at this time? What techniques do the authors use to convey their ideas to us? Both of the stories studied, Six feet of the country by Nadine Gordimer and No witchcraft for sale by Doris Lessing, contain similar views about being black during this time, including the racial tension that existed between black and white people. This tension also caused difficulties in the relationships held between master and servant. The opinion of the inferiority of black servants and black people in general is also addressed in both of the stories. The inferiority of black people during this time is a big issue that is addressed in these stories. In No witchcraft for sale one of the first instances showing black inferiority was when Teddy, only six years old, showed disrespect towards Gideons youngest son shouting, piccanin, at him and racing around him on his scooter, intimidating him, then excusing his actions stating that; Hes only a black boy. Therefore implying that the boy was inferior and unimportant to him because he was black. This created a barrier in the normally trusting relationship that Teddy and Gideon shared, forcing Gideon to distance himself from the boy becoming for the first time in the story as black and white,. Teddy also changed and realised superiority over Gideon; If he came into the kitchen to ask for something, it was in the way a white man uses towards a servant, expecting to be obeyed. This concept of blacks being inferior was reinforced in Six feet of the country when Petrus and his father were sent the wrong body to be buried, none of the authorities were able to help even when the white master tried to gain information about where Petruss brothers body was. He had the impression that the authorities didnt care; It was as if at any moment they might conduct me into their mortuary and say, There! Lift up the sheets; look for him your poultry boys brother. There are so many black faces surely one will do? Also highlighted in this story is the existence of racial tension, this sentence describes it indisputably; Guns under the white mens pillows and the burglar bars on the white mens windows. They mean those strange moments on city pavements when a black man wont stand aside for a white man. The expectance of a black man to stand aside for a white man shows the accepted inferiority of black people at this time, although it also depicts the tension caused by the black people in the city refusing to be inferior any longer. Racial tension was also a factor in the difficulties that arose between Gideon the servant and Mr and Mrs Farquar when the white scientist came from the city with his preconceived notions that he wouldnt find anything, to ask for the root that saved Teddys eyesight when a poisonous snake spat in his face. The Farquars, who were normally very fond of Gideon even allowing him to live in the compound with his family instead of going home to his kraal like most black servants, still favoured the white scientist over Gideon. They didnt understand why he would not tell them of the cure, thinking that he was just being unreasonable; They went on persuading and arguing, with all the force of their exasperation. Gideon felt betrayed by the Farquars asserting their authority over him, showing their superiority over him because the scientist was there, and, because this was his knowledge, black knowledge; He could not believe his old friends could so betray him. Gideon appeared to give in to their persuading, however, instead of taking the Farquars and the scientist the short ten-minute journey to find the root, he took them a tortuous six miles from the house in the blistering heat Before passing a handful of flowers to the scientist; He walked them through the bush along unknown paths for two hours. In that melting destroying heat. Gideon was punishing them for betraying him, while they felt angry and the scientist thought that he was being proved right, that the medicines didnt exist, which was what he was supposed to think; The magical drug would remain where it was, unknown and useless except for the tiny scattering of Africans who had the knowledge. In Six feet of the country, Lerice and her husband, like the Farquars, display and informality with their servants that in the midst of Apartheid would have been extremely unusual. They often cared for them when they were ill, however when Petruss brother travelled the hundreds of miles from Rhodesia, without the relevant permit, to find work, the servants were afraid to inform Lerice and her husband, causing Lerice to feel offended and hurt. Differing values are another idea presented to us by these stories, including the significance of burying Petruss brother because the land that he was buried in would be the only thing that really belonged to him and couldnt be taken away. Gideons cures are also the only thing that truly belongs to the black medicine man and not the white doctors, therefore Gideon being stubborn and not revealing the medicine, is really just preserving a piece of the native culture. The authors use various techniques to convey their ideas to us; both use language to communicate the inferiority of the black servants calling them boy no matter what age they are, quite literally addressing them as junior to or lower than the whites and then in contrast to this the black servants call the white men baas, therefore enhancing the superiority of them. Descriptive language is also used to emphasize certain points in the stories. In Six feet of the country the funeral procession is depicted as being peculiarly suited to the two donkeys pulling the cart, describing them as having an air of submissiveness and as being downcast. This is particularly effective in communicating the mood of the servants not just at the time of the funeral but in general at the time of Apartheid. This also shows how dignified the servants were, although they were extremely poor they still managed to give their dead a formal funeral. Doris Lessing presented the themes of racial tension and difficulties in a normally pleasant relationship between master and servant. The tension was brought on by the Farquars themselves, describing the scientist as the Big doctor from the big city, adopting a racist attitude on account of the scientist. To be black in Southern Africa at this time would mean being a second class person to be inferior to white people and would spend their lives serving white people. According to the authorities in Six feet of the country a black person living in South Africa would have no identity. I believe that the tension illustrated in both of these stories was caused by a lack of understanding the white people had of the black culture and traditions, I also believe that Doris Lessing and Nadine Gordimer have effectively conveyed the themes that I have highlighted, racial tension, difficult relationships or relationship barriers and differing values with the use of language, the way they presented the characters and the presentation of the themes. The title No witchcraft for sale was used because the black witchcraft was something that Gideon possessed that the white man did not, this is very similar to Six feet of the country as the six feet represent the land that Petruss brother was buried in, it would be all that he owned that couldnt be taken from him.

Saturday, September 21, 2019

Debt and Factoring Essay Example for Free

Debt and Factoring Essay Nowadays, every business needs finance. But at the same time, bad debt has become a stinging problem for the creditors. Many companies are faced with the high credit risk, so obtaining it can be one of the most difficult parts of running your business. So what is the solution for this problem? You can see, there are so many types of business finance, including: bank loans, credit cards, leasing, even outsides investors, family and friend loans†¦ But in my opinion, one of the quickest forms of low cost business finance is factoring, where you can get up to 85% of the value of your invoice immediately, and the remainder (minus the factoring company’s fee) after the money is collected. kFactoring is one of the best ways to get quick finance, improving your cashflow and allowing you to make the most of your sales without risking late payment. What is factoring? You can image that just be simple to sell your invoice to a factoring company. You can get cash quickly, have a chance to access immediate funds, without having to wait for the customer to pay the invoice. You also don’t have to collect the debt. Because you transfer the mission to the factoring company. They get debt and have to collect it. Of course, you lose some of the value of the invoice. And the difference between the price it paid for the invoice and the money from the debtor is the factor’s overall profit. They can provide money either with recourse or without recourse. This is particularly beneficial to those of you who are in a growth period and committing more working capital to customer credit debtors. There are three basically parties involved in factoring transaction. First, the seller of goods. Second, the buyer of goods. And lastly, the factor or factoring company. Three parties interact each other during the purchase of goods. And what about the history of factoring? In fact, it started centuries ago. It was used in England before 1400. It appears to be closely related to early merchant banking activities. As time rolled on, factoring underwent several changes. The changes are brought about by technology, the organization of companies particularly air travel and non-face to face communications technologies starting with the telegraph, followed by the telephone and then computers. The changes in the legal structures also influenced the changes in factoring rules. But in general, the purpose of it is as the same. Factoring is becoming popular tool to solve problems relating collection, delays recievables. So what are the advantages of factoring over other types of finance? Time Saving – With factoring, you don’t waste too much time to chase debts, administer sales ledger. Instead that you can concentrate on the other major areas of your business and improve your efficiency. You can use this money to invest in stock, real estate Cost Naturally, one of the key considerations when thinking about factoring solutions is the amount it will cost. Obviously it will mean that profit margins are reduced when the factor’s service fee is taken into account. However, factoring your invoices is still cheaper than using credit cards, overdrafts or many other forms of finance. Factoring also gives you set fees, whereas credit cards and overdrafts costs can build up if you keep using them and not paying them off in full. Speed – Factoring allow you to capitalise on your invoices with a minimum of delay. You can get up to 85% of the invoice within 24 hours, helping to maintain a good working cashflow rather than requiring you to wait 30/60 days for a customer to pay (If they pay on time! . This is particularly useful if you get a large order that requires you to spend on stock and production costs before you get paid; factoring allows you to accept the order with much less risk to your cashflow. Security – Factoring does not require you to use your home or business assets as security for the finance, as the money is secured on the sales you have already made. Bear in mind though that some factoring companies will not want to fac tor risky invoices; as they carry the risk rather than you. Suitable for Businesses of All Sizes- One big advantage of factoring is that it is potentially suitable for businesses of all sizes; especially now there are invoice finance firms that are targeted at small businesses and their needs. The above listed advantage do not mean that the factoring operation are totally free from any limitation. Some of main limitations of such transaction are listed below: Reputation – Some less reputable invoice finance companies can damage your customer relations by being too aggressive in collecting factored invoices. However, you can avoid this problem by choosing a well known and reputable firm. Control – Factoring reduces the control you have over your debts, as the invoice finance company collects them for you. However, this also means less work on your part. factoring can have a negative impact on the way a business operates. * The factor usually takes over the maintenance of the sales ledger. Customers may prefer to deal with the company it is trading with rather than a factor. However, if the factors techniques are clearly agreed beforehand, there will usually be no problem. * Factoring may impose constraints on the way to do business. For non-recourse factoring, most factors will want to pre-approve customers, which may cause delays. The factor will apply credit limits to individual customers (though these should be no lower than prudent credit control would suggest). * The client company might only want the finance arrangements and yet it might feel it is paying for collection services they do not really need. * Ending a factoring arrangement can be difficult where the only exit route is to repurchase the sales ledger or to switch factors and that could cause a sudden shortfall in your working capital.

Friday, September 20, 2019

Disease Caused by Parasite of Genus Trypanosoma

Disease Caused by Parasite of Genus Trypanosoma Human trypanosomiasis caused by Trypanosoma evansi and Trypanosoma lewisi in India : A matter of concern Introduction Disease produced by the parasite of genus Trypanosoma called as trypanosomiasis. It is one of the most important hemoprotozoan diseases, widely distributed in animals and human beings. It is endemic in Africa and America, are deadly pathogens that threaten millions of people in at least 36 countries in Africa. It is estimated that approximately 60 million people are at risk and 3, 00,000 new cases found every year in Africa (WHO Report 1998). Both African and American trypanosomes rank within the top 10 in terms of global impact. Despite the impact of these parasites, how they cause disease is relatively less is understood. In Africa, the disease is commonly known as human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) or sleeping sickness whereas the American trypanosomiasis recognized as Chagas disease. They not only infect vertebrates groups (amphibians, reptiles, birds, fish, and mammals) but also many invertebrates (Crithidia, Leptomonas). Human African trypanosomiasis belongs to genus Trypanoso ma, subgenus trypanozoon. Classification phylum sacromastigophora, order kinetoplastida and the family trypanosomatidae. Genus Trypanosoma includes subgenus which is divided into major group, salivaria and stercoraria that infect vertebrates (Hoare C. A.1964). Trypanozoon (T. brucei ssp, T. evansi, T. equiperdum), Duttonella (T. vivax,T. uniforme), Nannomonas (T. congolense, T. simiae), Pycnomonas (T. suis), Tejeraia (T. rangeli) belongs to salivaria group. Under stercoraria group Herpetosoma (T. lewisi, T. musculi,T. microti), Megatrypanum (T. theileri, T. melophagium), Schizotryponum (T. cruzi, T. dionisii) come. T. brucei. brucei, T. brucei. gambiense and T. brucei. rhodesiense are the subspecies of the Trypanozoon. Sleeping sickness is caused by T. brucei. gambiense, a chronic form of HAT in West and Central Africa lasting from months to years or T. brucei. rhodesiense, an acute form of HAT in East and Southern African with a duration of weeks to months. Whereas, closely relate d parasite T. brucei. brucei is non pathogenic to humans. The American trypanosomiasis is caused by T. cruzi. rhodesiense. These forms of the disease is deadly and develop within weeks to months, the gambiense form takes year. Trypanosomes cause animal trypanosomiasis has a wide geographic distribution. Surra is caused by T. evansi and infects mainly camels, cattle, buffalos, horses, deer and other wild animals. T. b. Brucei causes nagana in tropical Africa and affects only cattle; T. vivax and T. congolense infect domestic and small animals while T.lewisi is a commensally of rats. T. equiperdum causes dourine disease in horse and donkey of India, Europe, America and North Africa. African trypanosomes are transmitted by tsetse flies, a species of Glossina, and South American trypanosomes by reduvid bugs. Normally human are resistant to animal species of Trypanosoma due to the trypanolytic factor of human serum. However, there are several cases of human infection with animal trypanosomes such as Trypanosoma evansi; Trypanosoma lewisi and Trypanosoma congolense have been discussed later in this article. This proves not just a rare cases but the beginning of new era in the history of human trypanosomes, put in dilemma whether they develop potential of new diseases of humans or just a biological accidently transmission. In Asia, first documented evidence found in 1933, human trypanosomiasis in Malaysia, a four month old infant infected with T. lewisi (Johnson P. D, 1933). Later in 1974 K. Shrivastava and colleague reported T. lewisi-like Herpetosoma infection, diagnosed in two adult patients in India during malaria eradication program. All three human Herpetosoma infected patients were recovered without treatment. More recently the cases of a two-month-old infant in the Gambia (Howie, S. et al., 2006) and India (Kaur, R. et al., 2007) infected with T. lewisi-like trypanosome is reported but Gambian case has invasion of central nervous system. One more case in Thailand is reported; Trypanosoma lewisi-like infected 45-day-old male infant was recovered with the treatment of antibiotic gentamicin (Sarataphan, N. et al., 2007). Suspected case, 40 aged female in State of west Bengal of India, infected with trypanosomiasis in January 2005 however T. evansi was concluded by considering only the fact, specie s isolated from these area is T. evansi in cattle, buffaloes, and goats (see Ref. Meeting of the Ad Hoc Group of the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), Paris 2006). Animal trypanosomiasis Trypanosoma evansi caused to human in India, state of Maharashtra. The patient was 45 year old man and veterinary quack from Seoni village in Taluka Shindevahi of District Chandrapur from Maharashtra State. He was admitted to rural hospital; initially symptoms observed were headache, intermittent fever, disoriented, sensory scarcity, saliva dribble from mouth and violent behaviour. Blood thick smear, stained by Fields stain, examination was done by local microbiologist Mrs. Bharti U Sable; she suspects trypanosome along with plasmodium falciparum (figure 01). He was treated with antimalarial drug along with oral hematenics. She marked as the founder of Indian trypanosome, T. evansi. Later patient was transferred to the Government Medical College and Hospital (GMC) in Nagpur, India. Stained blood smear shows numerous flagellated trypanosomes parasite only, was confirmed morphologically, position of nucleus and small kinetoplast at central and posterior respectively indicate that the contributory mediator was T. evansi (Joshi, PP. et al., 2005). Anoth er unique character of T. evansi has homogenous DNA minicircles (Borst et al., 1987; Songa et al., 1990; Masiga and Gibson, 1990; Lun et al., 1992) and absence of DNA maxicircles in the kinetoplast unlike T. brucei (Borst et al., 1987; Songa et al., 1990). Several methods has been evolvedmicroscopy, card agglutination test (C. Gutierrez et. al., 2000), microhematocrit centrifugation technique (Woo, PTK 1970), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Indrakamhang, P et al.1996), DNA hybridization (Viseshakul, N., Panyim, S., 1990) and polymerase chain reaction (Wuyts, N.et.al. 1994; Wuyts, N.et al.1995; Omawa, S et al 1999) for detection of T. evansi infection. To confirm morphological identification of parasite, additional test of blood, serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) was done in the Department of Microbiology, Government Medical College and Hospital, Nagpur and at the Institut de Recherche pour le Dà ©veloppement in Montpellier, France. Parasitological and serological tests conducted at GMC, Nagpur, are as followed (Joshi, PP. et al., 2005): Biochemical quantitative analysis of serum was performed with less tiny significance on lipid levels, indication of Tangier disease. Tangier disease is a rare autosomal recessive genetic disorder, high density lipoprotein deficiencies associated with this disease include dramatically lowered level of APO A1 (Von Eckardstein, A., et al., 1998), was found to be non trypanolytic (Rifkin, M R. 1978a), however controversial data, fresh sera of a patient with Tangier disease is trypanolytic exhibiting bothTLF-1 and TLF-2 activity, reported (Tomlinson et al., 1995). The demonstration of specific antibodies has been employed by using card agglutination test for trypanosomiasis (CATT) for T. evansi using whole blood and serum was conducted. CATT test initially developed for T. brucei. gambiense (Diall et al., 1994). Sensitivity of CATT for T. evansi in Kenya was 65.5% (Z.K. Njiru et al.2004) and 68.6% (Ngaira et al.2003).False positive result of CATT was reported (Stijn Deborggraeve et al.2008). Mini-anion centrifugation technique is used for purification and concentration of trypanosomes using heparinised blood before and after treatment of suramin A direct latex IgM agglutination test was conducted with CSF to reveal functionless of parasite in the blood brain barrier. Sediment of CSF after centrifugation was examined by bright field microscopy for the presence of trypanosomes. Thomas chamber is used to count lymphocytes in the CSF, presence demonstrate the incursion of parasite. Molecular technique and serological tests conducted at the Institut de Recherche pour le Dà ©veloppement in Montpellier, France, are as followed (Joshi, PP. et al., 2005). Three independent PCR assay were performed using DNA of trypanosome Related to the subgenus Trypanozoon using a seminested PCR method, primer used ITS1/2 based on internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of ribosomal DNA. Related to T.brucei group using a single PCR of the 177- basepair. Amplification of T. evansi was conducted using a 994- basepair mitochondrial kinetoplast minicircle template with the primer TEV 1/2. Reference strains used are T. b.gambiense Bat 6118 and T. evansi CIRDES. PCR provided high specificity and sensitivity molecular biology technique among others for diagnosis of infectious diseases and also permits identification of micro organisms such as mycobacterium (Garcia-Quintanilla, A et al., 2002) , detection and differentiation of Entamoeba histolytica and Entamoeba dispar (Gonin, P et. al.,2003), simultaneous detection of tick-borne hemoprotozoan parasites Babesia caballi and Babesia equi in horse blood (Alhassan, A. et. al., 2005) and detection of influenza A Virus (Nicole L. Z et. al, 2006). In spite of these, PCR are not usual in some countries (Holland et al., 2001). It has been reported about reproducibility problems, for diagnosis of both human and animal trypanosomes, of PCR results (Solano et al., 2002; Malele et al., 2003). Recently a new DNA amplification method, loop-mediated isothermal amplification developed for diagnosis of species and sub-species specific trypanosomes (Thekisoe OM et al., 2007). Disease developed due to absence of trypanolytic factor in normal human serum hence immune status of patient was checked to resolve possible infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Three tests were conducted to corroborate the results of Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in India. HIV 1/2 assay Specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) NNO-LIA HIV 1/2 Score test Investigation of parasite Unusual transmission of animal trypanosomiasis, T. evansi to human requires rationalization, for this P. Truc and collaborator, 2007 studied genetic characterization of T. evansi. Generally, genetic variability of T. evansi has been detected by using isoenzyme (Gibson et al., 1983; Stevens et al., 1989), restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) (Songa et al., 1990), microsatellite (Biteau et al., 2000) and random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis (Lun et al., 2004; Ventura et al., 2002); all these above technique found isolated T. evansi were genetically homogenous. Micro heterogeneity reported (Gibson et al., 1983; Stevens et al., 1989), may due to low-resolution techniques and no genetic exchange of T. evansi in vector like others T. brucei ssp, that leads to absence of recombination which play role for micro heterogeneity (Jenni et al.1986). Nevertheless, some genetic variability of isolated T. evansi from Kenya reported through PCR (Ngaira et al.2004, 2005; Njiru e t al.2006) and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) along with RAPD. Among later, AFLP admittance more polymorphisms, was able to differentiate and separate the Type A T. evansi into two clades (Masiga et al., 2006). Direct comparison of high-resolution molecular techniques microsatellites or simple sequence repeats (SSR) and Inter-simple sequence repeats (ISSR) PCR revealed that latter technique demonstrate greater genetic variability of T evansi isolates from different geographical area (Z.K. Njiru et al 2007). Recently molecular analysis of T. b. brucei by PCR and microsatellite PCR of reported blood slides was successfully conducted (Stijn Deborggraeve et al.2008). Isolated T. evansi has been termed into type A and type B (Masiga and Gibson, 1990). Unlike to type B detected only from Kenya, isolates type A are most copious (Borst et al., 1987). It has been shown however, that most of T. evansi from South America are dyskinetoplastic- lacking both maxicircles and minicir cles (Masiga and Gibson, 1990; Ventura et al., 2000; Schnaufer et al., 2002). Normally T. evansi diagnosed through variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) Rode Trypanozoon antigen type (RoTat) 1.2, a diagnostic antigen. Songa and Hamers, 1988 developed CATT for veterinary use, which based on RoTat 1.2 gene (Songa and Hamers, 1988). Both PCR test and serological-CATT test are highly sensitive and specific in divergent geographical region (Verloo et al., 2000), former test can be trustworthy for detection of isolates of both dyskinetoplastic and DNA minicircles in kinetoplast of T. evansi (Claes et al., 2004) also it based on RoTat 1.2 gene (Urakawa et al., 2001). On the other hand, most of T. evansi from Kenya were not detected by test, which based on VSG of T. evansi RoTat 1.2 gene because few isolates lack both RoTat 1.2 gene and their linked protein-VSG while other isolates having only RoTat 1.2 gene (Ngaira et al. 2004). Characterization of non-RoTat 1.2 T. evansi, specific PCR test developed in these 273 base pair was present in disparity to RoTat 1.2 T. evans i (J.M. Ngaira et al., 2005). Microscopic examination of dissected organs of tsetse flies was done for identification of trypanosome infections (Lloyd and Johnson, 1924). Parasites are, generally indentified in the mouthparts, salivary glands and mid-guts. Trypanosome species from vector is isolated and employed in isoenzyme electrophoresis technique for identifications (Gashumba et al., 1986). Another approach as recombinant DNA probes have been used for the identification both mature and immature trypanosomes in tsetse fly (Gibson et al., 1988; Majiwa et al., 1993).Dot-ELISA is another technique used for detecting trypanosomes in tsetse flies (Bosompem et al., 1996; Ouma, J. O et al., 2000) How T. evansi differs from other Trypanozoon The subgenus Trypanozoon includes three species, namely Trypanosoma brucei, T. evansi and T. equiperdum. T. evansi is judge against, concerning their morphological, mode of transmission, biochemical and molecular characteristics, rest of species. Bloodstream stages of these three parasites are often morphologically indistinguishable (Brun R et al., 1998; Gibson, 2003). T. evansi is mechanically transmitted of infected blood through insects of the genera Tabanus, Stomoxys, Atylotus and Lyperosia. Horseflies (Tabanus spp), Stableflies (Stomoxys spp) are the most capable vectors for the transmission of T. evansi in Indonesia and China (Luckins, 1988; Lun et al., 1993). In Africa, south and Central America, tsetse fly (Glossina spp) and vampire bats Desmodus rotundus an extra host-vector-reservoir of the T. evansi, respectively can mechanically transmitted this parasite. Direct transmissions through milk or during coitus involved T. evansi (Wang, 1988). Besides mechanical and direct tran smission of T. evansi, T. equiperdum transmitted directly during coitus and with rare possibility through bloodsucking insects (see ref. Brun, R et al.,1998). Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, sleeping sickness parasites have been able to spread through tsetse flies of palpalis group (Glossina palpalis, Glossina tachinoides) while T. b. rhodesiense was generally transmitted by tsetse of the morsitans group (Glossina morsitans, Glossina pallidipes). All 31 species of tsetse flies are able to transmit trypanosomes (Aksoy S, et al., 2003). Other major parasites T. congolense, T. vivax and T. simiae that are pathogens of domesticated animals, transmitted by tsetse fly. Both parasites, T. evansi and T. equiperdum are closely related to T. brucei, most likely developed from Trypanosoma brucei by independently deletion of kinetoplast DNA and should be regarded as two subspecies Trypanosoma brucei evansi and Trypanosoma brucei equiperdum respectively (Lai et al., 2008). Absence of maxicircles in kinetoplast DNA explained inexistence of procyclic or insect stage in these parasites and can propagate only as the mammal-infective bloodstream form (Borst et al., 1987).This facilitate to explain wide range of mechanical transmission of T. evansi outside of Africa (Lun and Desser, 1995). Procyclic form (PCF) T.brucei strain cannot survival with a partial or complete loss of kinetoplast DNA as with some Blood stream form (BSF) strains. This kinetoplast DNA deficient T.brucei strains appear naturally or induced by drugs (Schnaufer A et al.2002). Drug inducers are acriflavine, ethidium bromide, methoxy-9-ellipticine, hydroxystilbamidine, berenil, pentamidine, an trycide, and para-rosaniline, grouped as DNA intercalators and non intercalating drugs (Hajduk, 1978). Nevertheless, the existence of T. equiperdum has been complexity; Claes et al. suggested that, in fact, some strains of Trypanosoma equiperdum are actually Trypanosoma brucei and all other remaining misidentified strains such as Swiss Tropical Institute Basel (STIB) 818 are Trypanosoma evansi. However, based on PCR amplification of the fragment of DNA maxicircles in the kinetoplast, T. equiperdum Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute (OVI) and Bordeaux Trypanosoma antigen type (BoTat) 1.1 strains are T. brucei and other STIB 818, STIB 841 and STIB 842 T. equiperdum strains are not cluster together with T. evansi as it maintains maxicircles and allied genes. (Li et al., 2006). Both parasites have homogeneous minicircles. Although in all T. evansi strains maxicircles are totally lost but T. equiperdum shows more assortment, some strains seems to bear complete maxicircles with no active essential gene; others are missing one of the genes; and a few devoid the entire maxicircles (Lai et al., 2008). Unlike other DNA, T. brucei mitochondrial DNA termed kinetoplast DNA include a network of interlocked DNA rings (Liu, B. et al. 2005). This network of T. brucei ssp. comprised of several thousands of heterogeneous minicircles and several dozen of homogeneous maxicircles (Borst and Hoeijmakers, 1979). T. evansi has largely homogenous and limited heterogeneous minicircles in kinetoplast DNA (Borst et al., 1987). Results (Joshi, PP. et al., 2005; P. Truc et al., 2007) A careful examination of morphological characteristic demonstrates the presence of T. evansi. Patient had normal level of APO A-1 indicate no sign of Tangier disease. The result of CATT for T. evansi was positive suspect stalwartly presence of RoTat 1.2 gene. Latex IgM test, a diagnostic for trypanosome invasion in CSF, and lymphocytes count in the CSF indicated no invasion of parasite. An attempt to isolate and propagate trypanosome in wistar rat was failed. For molecular diagnosis of T. evansi PCR conducted, test was positive. Results of ELISAs for HIV, conducted in France and India were negative. Genetic characterization, Indian patient has homogenous DNA minicircles in kinetoplast of T. evansi of type A and devoid of SRA gene. Treatment Treatment was started 109 days after initial admission to hospital using suramin. Suramin is manufactured by Bayer and donated to WHO as Germanin, used against sleeping sickness in 1922 (Voogd et al., 1993). Suramin was used as a first stage of treatment for HAT caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (chronic form) or T. b. rhodesiense (acute form). Efficacy of suramin against T. evansi infection was studied in cattle by Gill BS, Malhotra MN, 1963. It was requested and provided by Department of Public Health, Government of Maharashtra State, India and World Health Organisation respectively. As patient falls under first stage of infection, drugs have to be used pentamidine or suramin sodium. Pentamidine has more adverse effect than suramin, according to author; hence suramin was used in this patient. Drug suramin acts by interfering with enzyme of glycolytic pathway (Wierenga RK, et.al., 1987) in trypanosomes and produce hot spot, function as a signal for import into glycosome. It is preferred to give slow intravenous injection as suramin is poorly absorbed from intestine and causes intense local irritation when given intramuscularly (Voogd TE, et.al., 1993). Suramin does not cross the blood-brain barrier to kill trypanosome in the CSF however able to cure model of stage 2 diseases at a high dose greater than 80 mg per kg (Jennings FW, et.al., 1995). Follow-up study was commenced after the end of treatment and at 3rd and 6th months, all previous tests-CATT for T. evansi, latex IgM agglutination test, Mini anion-exchange centrifugation technique and examination of CSF by bright field microscopy are repeated at GMC Nagpur excepts biochemical analysis of serum for Tangier disease (P. P. Joshi et al. 2006). Tests result indicates first patient of human trypanosomiasis infected with T. evansi was recovered, Joshi and collaborators concluded that same schedule would follow in treatment if more cases observed. Suramin Suramin is less active against procyclic form of trypanosomes than bloodstream form, former normally reside in the tsetse flies (Scott AG, et.al., 1996). Suramin inhibit number of glycolytic enzyme which is essential to bloodstream form rather than procyclic form (Fairlamb AH, et.al., 1977, Fairlamb AH, et.al., 1980). Hanau and colleagues proposed other likely target of drug, competitive inhibitor of an enzyme 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase of pentose phosphate pathway (Hanau S, et.al., 1996). Suramin is an effective microfilaricide for Onchocerca spp. and Brugia pahangi worms (Hawking, et al., 1981; Howells, et al., 1983). It is a known ATP/UTP purine receptor (P2 receptor) antagonist (V. Ralevic and G. Burnstock, 1998). Nevertheless suramin inhibit ample varieties of enzymes like reverse transcriptase, dihydrofolate reductase, furamse, glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, hexokinase, L-a-glycerophosphate oxidase, receptor mediated uptake of low density lipoprotein, RNA polymerase and kinases, thymidine kinase, trypsin (P ´epin and Milord, 1994; Wang, 1995). Besides its trypanocidal activity, suramin is also useful in hormone-refractory prostate cancer, however survival rate was not affected (Small et al., 2000; Ahles et al., 2004). Suramins antitumor activity has been attributed to its inhibition of various growth factors which include platelet-derived growth factor, fibroblast growth factor, transforming growth factors alpha and beta, insulin- like growth factors 1(Stein CA,1993). Osteosarcoma is the malignant tumor of the bone; suramin exerts an inhibitory effect on osteosarcoma cell growth of established cell lines (Benini et al., 1999), newly established osteosarcoma cell lines and stimulation of osteosarcoma cells by physiological compounds, such as 1, 25-dihydroxy-Vitamin D3 (K. Trieb, H. Blahovec, 2002). Furthermore, results in an inhibiting capacity of suramin on various cell functions include production of alkaline-phosphatase or telomerase activi ty (K. Trieb, H. Blahovec, 2002). Suramin blocked CD154 (Emilio Margolles-Clark et al., 2009) from interacting with its receptor CD40 (U. Schà ¶nbeck and P. Libby, 2001; I.S. Grewal and R.A. Flavell, 1998), costimulatory interactions are therapeutically important to modulate immune responses (C.P. Larsen et al., 2006; F. Vincenti and M. Luggen, 2007). Suramin inhibited the binding of TNF-a to its receptor TNF-R1 (F. Mancini et al., 1999) and its ability to inhibit CD40-CD154 interaction was 30 fold more active compared to it (Emilio Margolles-Clark et al., 2009). Suramin has also been shown to suppress T cell activity (C. Schiller et al., 1994), antiproliferative effects on lymphoid cells (Z. Spigelman et al., 1987). Suramin can causes toxicities which include adrenal and renal insufficiency, coagulation factor abnormalities and poly-neuropathy (T.E. Voogd et al., 1993; D.J. Cole et al., 1994), at relatively high concentration inhibited the binding of IL2 to its cell surface recept or (G.B. Mills et al.,1990), greater than therapeutic use (S.A. Grossman et al., 2001; S.T. Eichhorst et al., 2004). It concentration-dependently inhibited proteolytic and phospholipase A2 (PLA2) activities of Bothrops jararacussu venom- potential to be used as antivenom, suramin also antagonise the cardiotoxic effect of Bothrops jararacussu venom in rats heart (Daniel N. Sifuentes et al., 2008). Uptake of suramin by bloodstream form of trypanosome is through receptor mediated endocytosis which is most likely route of entry (Fairlamb AH, et al., 1980). Suramin intensively bound to plasma proteins such as low density lipoproteins, albumins, globulins, fibrinogen, etc. According to Bastin et al. 1996, Coppens and Courtoy 2000 and Green et.al 2003 suggested that suramin might enter while bound to low density lipoprotein (LDL), it has high affinity to bind many serum proteins including LDL (Vansterkenburg ELM, et al., 1993). The high rate of fluid-phase endocytosis occurs in the trypanosomes of bloodstream form (Engstler, et al., 2004). This mechanism could be involved in the uptake of suramin into T. brucei that does not require specialized receptors. Trypanosomes cannot synthesise their own fatty acid and cholesterol de novo hence LDL uptake is essential for propagation (Coppens I, et al., 2000). It does not make any worse however in procyclic form, uptake of suramin is through receptor mediated endocytosis and not coupled with LDL uptake (Pal A, et al., 2002). Suramin involves inhibition of various glycolytic enzymes, effects rates of respiration as aerobic glycolysis is closely related with it in bloodstream forms (Fairlamb AH, et al., 1980, Opperdoes, F.R. et al., 1989). Diminished growth rate of trypanosome in vivo is a consequence of decrease in respiration (Fairlamb AH, et al., 1980). Suramin is also used as veterinary trypanocide; report on resistance in T. evansi that infects animals is reported (El Rayah et al., 1999, Zhou, J.L. et al., 2004). Some cases have been described of drug resistance when suramin is used against Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense in humans (W ´ery, M., 1994). Suramin reduced sensitivity towards T. b. rhodesiense (Bacchi et al., 1990) and failure of treatment up to 25-30% observed (P ´epin and Milord, 1994, Burri, C et al., 2004). Failures of treatment are common due to misdiagnosed late stage infection (Burri et al., 2004). De Koning argued one of the reasons of suramin resistance is associated with reduction in drug uptake; molecule is large and highly charged which plasma membrane transporter takes up. Role of apolipoprotein L-1 and haptoglobin-related protein T. evansi affects mainly domesticated animals such as camels, cattle and water buffalo, spread by mechanical transmission of infected blood through insect such as tabanid flies. Due to these, it spread apart from sub-Saharan Africa to South America, North America and Asia. Normally humans are resistant to animal trypanosomes, immunity against T.brucei brucei is due to trypanolytic activity of an apolipoprotein L-1 (APOL-1) bound to high density lipoprotein (HDL) (Vanhamme L. et al., 2003). Previously it was concluded that trypanolytic activity in normal human serum was due to immunoglobin M (Aaronovitch, S. Terry, R. J. 1972). Later in 1973, Hawking and colleagues resolute there were two trypanolyic factors. These two factors differ in their activity (in vivo and vitro), molecular mass, quantity in serum and sensitivity to antagonists (Hawking et al., 1973b). HDL was identified as trypanolyic factor by Rifkin in 1978, she also characterised the two trypanolyic factors determined by Hawking (Rifkin, M. R. 1978b). Trypanolyic factors in human serum shows inhomogeneous properties (Tomlinson et al., 1995; Raper et al., 1996b). Both TLF are a subset of HDLs commonly referred to as HDL3 (Lorenz et al., 1995), contain haptoglobin-related protein (Hpr) (Smith et al., 1995) and APOL-1 (Vanhamme, L. et al., 2003).TLF-1 is a 500 kDa lipid rich while TLF-2,1000 kDa protein complex containing IgM, lipid poor HDL particle (Raper, J. et al., 1999; Lugli, E.B. et al., 2004). Apolipop rotein A-1 (APOA-1) is a component of TLF-1(Smith et al., 1995) and, although previously reported that APOA-1 could not detected in TLF-2(Tomlinson, S. et al., 1995), is a component of TLF-2 (Raper, J. et al., 1999). Previously unknown proteins, human cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide (hCAP18), glycosylphosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase D (GPI-PLD) and paraoxonase are associated with TLF-1(Smith AB et al., 1995; Lugil E et al., 2004). APOA-1 suggests a role in trypanolysis later controversial report supporting a lytic role (Gillett, M. Owen, J. 1992a) or not favor lytic role (Rifkin, 1991; Seed et al., 1993). Later it was confirmed that APOA-1 was not toxic (Tytler, 1995) but may indirectly play role of trypanolytic (Owen et al., 1996). For trypanosomes, HDLs contain 16,000-65,000 binding site per cell having moderate affinity (Gillett, M. Owen, J. 1992b). However, binding of lytic factor, TLF-1 appeared to involve two binding site, low affinity have 65,000 and high affinity 350 binding sites (Drain et al., 2001). Host macromolecules, interact with bloodstream trypanosomes, transferrin (Borst, P.1991) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (Coppens, I et al., 1987) through receptor-mediated endocytosis occur at the flagellar pocket of trypanosome (Gull, K., 2003). APOL-1 is a bacterial colicins and Bcl-2 family members like protein containing pore forming domain as well as a region for the membrane insertion of it (Pà ©rez -Morga D et al., 2005, Pays E et al., 2006). APOL-1 is taken up in the parasite by endocytosis, able to kill by the parasite by forming anion selective pores in the lysosomal membrane of parasite, this pore allows the influx of chloride ions into the lysosome, subsequent cell death as a consequence of entry of water and induces uncontrolled osmotic swelling of vacuole ((Pà ©rez-Morga D et al., 2005; Pays E et al., 2006; B. Vanhollebeke et al., 2007a). APOL-1 could not be involved in apoptosis but in programmed cell death (B. Vanhollebeke et al., 2006a). Resistance of T.brucei rhodesiense and T.brucei gambiense to APOL-1 is developed which allows these parasites to infect and cause HAT. Single protein termed serum resistance-associated protein (SRA) is main reason of resistance of T.brucei rhodesiense to APOL-1.SRAP interacts strongly with APOL-1 and provide specific resistance to T.brucei rhodesiense (Xong HV et al., 1998; Gibson WC, 2005). T brucei gambiense is also resistant to APOL-1; mechanism is not understood (Pays E et al., 2006). Indian case with T. evansi infection, human serum devoid of APOL-1, reason for the absence was due to independent frameshift mutation in both APOL-1 alleles (B. Vanhollebeke et al., 2006b). Another HDL component, plays a toxic role for full trypanolytic activity of normal human serum, haptoglobin-related protein (Hpr).Indian case has normal concentration of Hpr bound HDL but short of trypanolytic activity. Hpr is a haemoglobin (Hb) binding protein induces, within acidic lysosome of T.b.brucei, Fenton like reaction between H202 and iron that lead to formation of free hydroxyl radicals, which would prompt the reaction of lipid peroxidation of lysosomal membrane (Smith AB et al., 1995; Hager KM et al., 1994; Bishop JR et al., 2001; Justin Widener et al., 2007). Nevertheless action of trypanolysis of Hpr and APOL-1, biological function is not clear. Optimal trypanolytic activity requires presence of both APOL-1 and Hpr on same subset of HDL particle (B. Vanhollebeke et al., 2007b). Vanhollebeke et al. (2007b) reported trypanosome survival assay in normal as well as mutant human sera. Survival of trypanosomes occurs in human serum devoid of APOL-1 and fetal calf serum (FCS). FCS is nonlytic and contains neither APOL-1 nor Hpr. Human serum deficient of Hpr and haptoglobin (Hp) but with normal HDL b Disease Caused by Parasite of Genus Trypanosoma Disease Caused by Parasite of Genus Trypanosoma Human trypanosomiasis caused by Trypanosoma evansi and Trypanosoma lewisi in India : A matter of concern Introduction Disease produced by the parasite of genus Trypanosoma called as trypanosomiasis. It is one of the most important hemoprotozoan diseases, widely distributed in animals and human beings. It is endemic in Africa and America, are deadly pathogens that threaten millions of people in at least 36 countries in Africa. It is estimated that approximately 60 million people are at risk and 3, 00,000 new cases found every year in Africa (WHO Report 1998). Both African and American trypanosomes rank within the top 10 in terms of global impact. Despite the impact of these parasites, how they cause disease is relatively less is understood. In Africa, the disease is commonly known as human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) or sleeping sickness whereas the American trypanosomiasis recognized as Chagas disease. They not only infect vertebrates groups (amphibians, reptiles, birds, fish, and mammals) but also many invertebrates (Crithidia, Leptomonas). Human African trypanosomiasis belongs to genus Trypanoso ma, subgenus trypanozoon. Classification phylum sacromastigophora, order kinetoplastida and the family trypanosomatidae. Genus Trypanosoma includes subgenus which is divided into major group, salivaria and stercoraria that infect vertebrates (Hoare C. A.1964). Trypanozoon (T. brucei ssp, T. evansi, T. equiperdum), Duttonella (T. vivax,T. uniforme), Nannomonas (T. congolense, T. simiae), Pycnomonas (T. suis), Tejeraia (T. rangeli) belongs to salivaria group. Under stercoraria group Herpetosoma (T. lewisi, T. musculi,T. microti), Megatrypanum (T. theileri, T. melophagium), Schizotryponum (T. cruzi, T. dionisii) come. T. brucei. brucei, T. brucei. gambiense and T. brucei. rhodesiense are the subspecies of the Trypanozoon. Sleeping sickness is caused by T. brucei. gambiense, a chronic form of HAT in West and Central Africa lasting from months to years or T. brucei. rhodesiense, an acute form of HAT in East and Southern African with a duration of weeks to months. Whereas, closely relate d parasite T. brucei. brucei is non pathogenic to humans. The American trypanosomiasis is caused by T. cruzi. rhodesiense. These forms of the disease is deadly and develop within weeks to months, the gambiense form takes year. Trypanosomes cause animal trypanosomiasis has a wide geographic distribution. Surra is caused by T. evansi and infects mainly camels, cattle, buffalos, horses, deer and other wild animals. T. b. Brucei causes nagana in tropical Africa and affects only cattle; T. vivax and T. congolense infect domestic and small animals while T.lewisi is a commensally of rats. T. equiperdum causes dourine disease in horse and donkey of India, Europe, America and North Africa. African trypanosomes are transmitted by tsetse flies, a species of Glossina, and South American trypanosomes by reduvid bugs. Normally human are resistant to animal species of Trypanosoma due to the trypanolytic factor of human serum. However, there are several cases of human infection with animal trypanosomes such as Trypanosoma evansi; Trypanosoma lewisi and Trypanosoma congolense have been discussed later in this article. This proves not just a rare cases but the beginning of new era in the history of human trypanosomes, put in dilemma whether they develop potential of new diseases of humans or just a biological accidently transmission. In Asia, first documented evidence found in 1933, human trypanosomiasis in Malaysia, a four month old infant infected with T. lewisi (Johnson P. D, 1933). Later in 1974 K. Shrivastava and colleague reported T. lewisi-like Herpetosoma infection, diagnosed in two adult patients in India during malaria eradication program. All three human Herpetosoma infected patients were recovered without treatment. More recently the cases of a two-month-old infant in the Gambia (Howie, S. et al., 2006) and India (Kaur, R. et al., 2007) infected with T. lewisi-like trypanosome is reported but Gambian case has invasion of central nervous system. One more case in Thailand is reported; Trypanosoma lewisi-like infected 45-day-old male infant was recovered with the treatment of antibiotic gentamicin (Sarataphan, N. et al., 2007). Suspected case, 40 aged female in State of west Bengal of India, infected with trypanosomiasis in January 2005 however T. evansi was concluded by considering only the fact, specie s isolated from these area is T. evansi in cattle, buffaloes, and goats (see Ref. Meeting of the Ad Hoc Group of the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), Paris 2006). Animal trypanosomiasis Trypanosoma evansi caused to human in India, state of Maharashtra. The patient was 45 year old man and veterinary quack from Seoni village in Taluka Shindevahi of District Chandrapur from Maharashtra State. He was admitted to rural hospital; initially symptoms observed were headache, intermittent fever, disoriented, sensory scarcity, saliva dribble from mouth and violent behaviour. Blood thick smear, stained by Fields stain, examination was done by local microbiologist Mrs. Bharti U Sable; she suspects trypanosome along with plasmodium falciparum (figure 01). He was treated with antimalarial drug along with oral hematenics. She marked as the founder of Indian trypanosome, T. evansi. Later patient was transferred to the Government Medical College and Hospital (GMC) in Nagpur, India. Stained blood smear shows numerous flagellated trypanosomes parasite only, was confirmed morphologically, position of nucleus and small kinetoplast at central and posterior respectively indicate that the contributory mediator was T. evansi (Joshi, PP. et al., 2005). Anoth er unique character of T. evansi has homogenous DNA minicircles (Borst et al., 1987; Songa et al., 1990; Masiga and Gibson, 1990; Lun et al., 1992) and absence of DNA maxicircles in the kinetoplast unlike T. brucei (Borst et al., 1987; Songa et al., 1990). Several methods has been evolvedmicroscopy, card agglutination test (C. Gutierrez et. al., 2000), microhematocrit centrifugation technique (Woo, PTK 1970), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Indrakamhang, P et al.1996), DNA hybridization (Viseshakul, N., Panyim, S., 1990) and polymerase chain reaction (Wuyts, N.et.al. 1994; Wuyts, N.et al.1995; Omawa, S et al 1999) for detection of T. evansi infection. To confirm morphological identification of parasite, additional test of blood, serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) was done in the Department of Microbiology, Government Medical College and Hospital, Nagpur and at the Institut de Recherche pour le Dà ©veloppement in Montpellier, France. Parasitological and serological tests conducted at GMC, Nagpur, are as followed (Joshi, PP. et al., 2005): Biochemical quantitative analysis of serum was performed with less tiny significance on lipid levels, indication of Tangier disease. Tangier disease is a rare autosomal recessive genetic disorder, high density lipoprotein deficiencies associated with this disease include dramatically lowered level of APO A1 (Von Eckardstein, A., et al., 1998), was found to be non trypanolytic (Rifkin, M R. 1978a), however controversial data, fresh sera of a patient with Tangier disease is trypanolytic exhibiting bothTLF-1 and TLF-2 activity, reported (Tomlinson et al., 1995). The demonstration of specific antibodies has been employed by using card agglutination test for trypanosomiasis (CATT) for T. evansi using whole blood and serum was conducted. CATT test initially developed for T. brucei. gambiense (Diall et al., 1994). Sensitivity of CATT for T. evansi in Kenya was 65.5% (Z.K. Njiru et al.2004) and 68.6% (Ngaira et al.2003).False positive result of CATT was reported (Stijn Deborggraeve et al.2008). Mini-anion centrifugation technique is used for purification and concentration of trypanosomes using heparinised blood before and after treatment of suramin A direct latex IgM agglutination test was conducted with CSF to reveal functionless of parasite in the blood brain barrier. Sediment of CSF after centrifugation was examined by bright field microscopy for the presence of trypanosomes. Thomas chamber is used to count lymphocytes in the CSF, presence demonstrate the incursion of parasite. Molecular technique and serological tests conducted at the Institut de Recherche pour le Dà ©veloppement in Montpellier, France, are as followed (Joshi, PP. et al., 2005). Three independent PCR assay were performed using DNA of trypanosome Related to the subgenus Trypanozoon using a seminested PCR method, primer used ITS1/2 based on internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of ribosomal DNA. Related to T.brucei group using a single PCR of the 177- basepair. Amplification of T. evansi was conducted using a 994- basepair mitochondrial kinetoplast minicircle template with the primer TEV 1/2. Reference strains used are T. b.gambiense Bat 6118 and T. evansi CIRDES. PCR provided high specificity and sensitivity molecular biology technique among others for diagnosis of infectious diseases and also permits identification of micro organisms such as mycobacterium (Garcia-Quintanilla, A et al., 2002) , detection and differentiation of Entamoeba histolytica and Entamoeba dispar (Gonin, P et. al.,2003), simultaneous detection of tick-borne hemoprotozoan parasites Babesia caballi and Babesia equi in horse blood (Alhassan, A. et. al., 2005) and detection of influenza A Virus (Nicole L. Z et. al, 2006). In spite of these, PCR are not usual in some countries (Holland et al., 2001). It has been reported about reproducibility problems, for diagnosis of both human and animal trypanosomes, of PCR results (Solano et al., 2002; Malele et al., 2003). Recently a new DNA amplification method, loop-mediated isothermal amplification developed for diagnosis of species and sub-species specific trypanosomes (Thekisoe OM et al., 2007). Disease developed due to absence of trypanolytic factor in normal human serum hence immune status of patient was checked to resolve possible infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Three tests were conducted to corroborate the results of Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in India. HIV 1/2 assay Specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) NNO-LIA HIV 1/2 Score test Investigation of parasite Unusual transmission of animal trypanosomiasis, T. evansi to human requires rationalization, for this P. Truc and collaborator, 2007 studied genetic characterization of T. evansi. Generally, genetic variability of T. evansi has been detected by using isoenzyme (Gibson et al., 1983; Stevens et al., 1989), restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) (Songa et al., 1990), microsatellite (Biteau et al., 2000) and random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis (Lun et al., 2004; Ventura et al., 2002); all these above technique found isolated T. evansi were genetically homogenous. Micro heterogeneity reported (Gibson et al., 1983; Stevens et al., 1989), may due to low-resolution techniques and no genetic exchange of T. evansi in vector like others T. brucei ssp, that leads to absence of recombination which play role for micro heterogeneity (Jenni et al.1986). Nevertheless, some genetic variability of isolated T. evansi from Kenya reported through PCR (Ngaira et al.2004, 2005; Njiru e t al.2006) and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) along with RAPD. Among later, AFLP admittance more polymorphisms, was able to differentiate and separate the Type A T. evansi into two clades (Masiga et al., 2006). Direct comparison of high-resolution molecular techniques microsatellites or simple sequence repeats (SSR) and Inter-simple sequence repeats (ISSR) PCR revealed that latter technique demonstrate greater genetic variability of T evansi isolates from different geographical area (Z.K. Njiru et al 2007). Recently molecular analysis of T. b. brucei by PCR and microsatellite PCR of reported blood slides was successfully conducted (Stijn Deborggraeve et al.2008). Isolated T. evansi has been termed into type A and type B (Masiga and Gibson, 1990). Unlike to type B detected only from Kenya, isolates type A are most copious (Borst et al., 1987). It has been shown however, that most of T. evansi from South America are dyskinetoplastic- lacking both maxicircles and minicir cles (Masiga and Gibson, 1990; Ventura et al., 2000; Schnaufer et al., 2002). Normally T. evansi diagnosed through variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) Rode Trypanozoon antigen type (RoTat) 1.2, a diagnostic antigen. Songa and Hamers, 1988 developed CATT for veterinary use, which based on RoTat 1.2 gene (Songa and Hamers, 1988). Both PCR test and serological-CATT test are highly sensitive and specific in divergent geographical region (Verloo et al., 2000), former test can be trustworthy for detection of isolates of both dyskinetoplastic and DNA minicircles in kinetoplast of T. evansi (Claes et al., 2004) also it based on RoTat 1.2 gene (Urakawa et al., 2001). On the other hand, most of T. evansi from Kenya were not detected by test, which based on VSG of T. evansi RoTat 1.2 gene because few isolates lack both RoTat 1.2 gene and their linked protein-VSG while other isolates having only RoTat 1.2 gene (Ngaira et al. 2004). Characterization of non-RoTat 1.2 T. evansi, specific PCR test developed in these 273 base pair was present in disparity to RoTat 1.2 T. evans i (J.M. Ngaira et al., 2005). Microscopic examination of dissected organs of tsetse flies was done for identification of trypanosome infections (Lloyd and Johnson, 1924). Parasites are, generally indentified in the mouthparts, salivary glands and mid-guts. Trypanosome species from vector is isolated and employed in isoenzyme electrophoresis technique for identifications (Gashumba et al., 1986). Another approach as recombinant DNA probes have been used for the identification both mature and immature trypanosomes in tsetse fly (Gibson et al., 1988; Majiwa et al., 1993).Dot-ELISA is another technique used for detecting trypanosomes in tsetse flies (Bosompem et al., 1996; Ouma, J. O et al., 2000) How T. evansi differs from other Trypanozoon The subgenus Trypanozoon includes three species, namely Trypanosoma brucei, T. evansi and T. equiperdum. T. evansi is judge against, concerning their morphological, mode of transmission, biochemical and molecular characteristics, rest of species. Bloodstream stages of these three parasites are often morphologically indistinguishable (Brun R et al., 1998; Gibson, 2003). T. evansi is mechanically transmitted of infected blood through insects of the genera Tabanus, Stomoxys, Atylotus and Lyperosia. Horseflies (Tabanus spp), Stableflies (Stomoxys spp) are the most capable vectors for the transmission of T. evansi in Indonesia and China (Luckins, 1988; Lun et al., 1993). In Africa, south and Central America, tsetse fly (Glossina spp) and vampire bats Desmodus rotundus an extra host-vector-reservoir of the T. evansi, respectively can mechanically transmitted this parasite. Direct transmissions through milk or during coitus involved T. evansi (Wang, 1988). Besides mechanical and direct tran smission of T. evansi, T. equiperdum transmitted directly during coitus and with rare possibility through bloodsucking insects (see ref. Brun, R et al.,1998). Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, sleeping sickness parasites have been able to spread through tsetse flies of palpalis group (Glossina palpalis, Glossina tachinoides) while T. b. rhodesiense was generally transmitted by tsetse of the morsitans group (Glossina morsitans, Glossina pallidipes). All 31 species of tsetse flies are able to transmit trypanosomes (Aksoy S, et al., 2003). Other major parasites T. congolense, T. vivax and T. simiae that are pathogens of domesticated animals, transmitted by tsetse fly. Both parasites, T. evansi and T. equiperdum are closely related to T. brucei, most likely developed from Trypanosoma brucei by independently deletion of kinetoplast DNA and should be regarded as two subspecies Trypanosoma brucei evansi and Trypanosoma brucei equiperdum respectively (Lai et al., 2008). Absence of maxicircles in kinetoplast DNA explained inexistence of procyclic or insect stage in these parasites and can propagate only as the mammal-infective bloodstream form (Borst et al., 1987).This facilitate to explain wide range of mechanical transmission of T. evansi outside of Africa (Lun and Desser, 1995). Procyclic form (PCF) T.brucei strain cannot survival with a partial or complete loss of kinetoplast DNA as with some Blood stream form (BSF) strains. This kinetoplast DNA deficient T.brucei strains appear naturally or induced by drugs (Schnaufer A et al.2002). Drug inducers are acriflavine, ethidium bromide, methoxy-9-ellipticine, hydroxystilbamidine, berenil, pentamidine, an trycide, and para-rosaniline, grouped as DNA intercalators and non intercalating drugs (Hajduk, 1978). Nevertheless, the existence of T. equiperdum has been complexity; Claes et al. suggested that, in fact, some strains of Trypanosoma equiperdum are actually Trypanosoma brucei and all other remaining misidentified strains such as Swiss Tropical Institute Basel (STIB) 818 are Trypanosoma evansi. However, based on PCR amplification of the fragment of DNA maxicircles in the kinetoplast, T. equiperdum Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute (OVI) and Bordeaux Trypanosoma antigen type (BoTat) 1.1 strains are T. brucei and other STIB 818, STIB 841 and STIB 842 T. equiperdum strains are not cluster together with T. evansi as it maintains maxicircles and allied genes. (Li et al., 2006). Both parasites have homogeneous minicircles. Although in all T. evansi strains maxicircles are totally lost but T. equiperdum shows more assortment, some strains seems to bear complete maxicircles with no active essential gene; others are missing one of the genes; and a few devoid the entire maxicircles (Lai et al., 2008). Unlike other DNA, T. brucei mitochondrial DNA termed kinetoplast DNA include a network of interlocked DNA rings (Liu, B. et al. 2005). This network of T. brucei ssp. comprised of several thousands of heterogeneous minicircles and several dozen of homogeneous maxicircles (Borst and Hoeijmakers, 1979). T. evansi has largely homogenous and limited heterogeneous minicircles in kinetoplast DNA (Borst et al., 1987). Results (Joshi, PP. et al., 2005; P. Truc et al., 2007) A careful examination of morphological characteristic demonstrates the presence of T. evansi. Patient had normal level of APO A-1 indicate no sign of Tangier disease. The result of CATT for T. evansi was positive suspect stalwartly presence of RoTat 1.2 gene. Latex IgM test, a diagnostic for trypanosome invasion in CSF, and lymphocytes count in the CSF indicated no invasion of parasite. An attempt to isolate and propagate trypanosome in wistar rat was failed. For molecular diagnosis of T. evansi PCR conducted, test was positive. Results of ELISAs for HIV, conducted in France and India were negative. Genetic characterization, Indian patient has homogenous DNA minicircles in kinetoplast of T. evansi of type A and devoid of SRA gene. Treatment Treatment was started 109 days after initial admission to hospital using suramin. Suramin is manufactured by Bayer and donated to WHO as Germanin, used against sleeping sickness in 1922 (Voogd et al., 1993). Suramin was used as a first stage of treatment for HAT caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (chronic form) or T. b. rhodesiense (acute form). Efficacy of suramin against T. evansi infection was studied in cattle by Gill BS, Malhotra MN, 1963. It was requested and provided by Department of Public Health, Government of Maharashtra State, India and World Health Organisation respectively. As patient falls under first stage of infection, drugs have to be used pentamidine or suramin sodium. Pentamidine has more adverse effect than suramin, according to author; hence suramin was used in this patient. Drug suramin acts by interfering with enzyme of glycolytic pathway (Wierenga RK, et.al., 1987) in trypanosomes and produce hot spot, function as a signal for import into glycosome. It is preferred to give slow intravenous injection as suramin is poorly absorbed from intestine and causes intense local irritation when given intramuscularly (Voogd TE, et.al., 1993). Suramin does not cross the blood-brain barrier to kill trypanosome in the CSF however able to cure model of stage 2 diseases at a high dose greater than 80 mg per kg (Jennings FW, et.al., 1995). Follow-up study was commenced after the end of treatment and at 3rd and 6th months, all previous tests-CATT for T. evansi, latex IgM agglutination test, Mini anion-exchange centrifugation technique and examination of CSF by bright field microscopy are repeated at GMC Nagpur excepts biochemical analysis of serum for Tangier disease (P. P. Joshi et al. 2006). Tests result indicates first patient of human trypanosomiasis infected with T. evansi was recovered, Joshi and collaborators concluded that same schedule would follow in treatment if more cases observed. Suramin Suramin is less active against procyclic form of trypanosomes than bloodstream form, former normally reside in the tsetse flies (Scott AG, et.al., 1996). Suramin inhibit number of glycolytic enzyme which is essential to bloodstream form rather than procyclic form (Fairlamb AH, et.al., 1977, Fairlamb AH, et.al., 1980). Hanau and colleagues proposed other likely target of drug, competitive inhibitor of an enzyme 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase of pentose phosphate pathway (Hanau S, et.al., 1996). Suramin is an effective microfilaricide for Onchocerca spp. and Brugia pahangi worms (Hawking, et al., 1981; Howells, et al., 1983). It is a known ATP/UTP purine receptor (P2 receptor) antagonist (V. Ralevic and G. Burnstock, 1998). Nevertheless suramin inhibit ample varieties of enzymes like reverse transcriptase, dihydrofolate reductase, furamse, glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, hexokinase, L-a-glycerophosphate oxidase, receptor mediated uptake of low density lipoprotein, RNA polymerase and kinases, thymidine kinase, trypsin (P ´epin and Milord, 1994; Wang, 1995). Besides its trypanocidal activity, suramin is also useful in hormone-refractory prostate cancer, however survival rate was not affected (Small et al., 2000; Ahles et al., 2004). Suramins antitumor activity has been attributed to its inhibition of various growth factors which include platelet-derived growth factor, fibroblast growth factor, transforming growth factors alpha and beta, insulin- like growth factors 1(Stein CA,1993). Osteosarcoma is the malignant tumor of the bone; suramin exerts an inhibitory effect on osteosarcoma cell growth of established cell lines (Benini et al., 1999), newly established osteosarcoma cell lines and stimulation of osteosarcoma cells by physiological compounds, such as 1, 25-dihydroxy-Vitamin D3 (K. Trieb, H. Blahovec, 2002). Furthermore, results in an inhibiting capacity of suramin on various cell functions include production of alkaline-phosphatase or telomerase activi ty (K. Trieb, H. Blahovec, 2002). Suramin blocked CD154 (Emilio Margolles-Clark et al., 2009) from interacting with its receptor CD40 (U. Schà ¶nbeck and P. Libby, 2001; I.S. Grewal and R.A. Flavell, 1998), costimulatory interactions are therapeutically important to modulate immune responses (C.P. Larsen et al., 2006; F. Vincenti and M. Luggen, 2007). Suramin inhibited the binding of TNF-a to its receptor TNF-R1 (F. Mancini et al., 1999) and its ability to inhibit CD40-CD154 interaction was 30 fold more active compared to it (Emilio Margolles-Clark et al., 2009). Suramin has also been shown to suppress T cell activity (C. Schiller et al., 1994), antiproliferative effects on lymphoid cells (Z. Spigelman et al., 1987). Suramin can causes toxicities which include adrenal and renal insufficiency, coagulation factor abnormalities and poly-neuropathy (T.E. Voogd et al., 1993; D.J. Cole et al., 1994), at relatively high concentration inhibited the binding of IL2 to its cell surface recept or (G.B. Mills et al.,1990), greater than therapeutic use (S.A. Grossman et al., 2001; S.T. Eichhorst et al., 2004). It concentration-dependently inhibited proteolytic and phospholipase A2 (PLA2) activities of Bothrops jararacussu venom- potential to be used as antivenom, suramin also antagonise the cardiotoxic effect of Bothrops jararacussu venom in rats heart (Daniel N. Sifuentes et al., 2008). Uptake of suramin by bloodstream form of trypanosome is through receptor mediated endocytosis which is most likely route of entry (Fairlamb AH, et al., 1980). Suramin intensively bound to plasma proteins such as low density lipoproteins, albumins, globulins, fibrinogen, etc. According to Bastin et al. 1996, Coppens and Courtoy 2000 and Green et.al 2003 suggested that suramin might enter while bound to low density lipoprotein (LDL), it has high affinity to bind many serum proteins including LDL (Vansterkenburg ELM, et al., 1993). The high rate of fluid-phase endocytosis occurs in the trypanosomes of bloodstream form (Engstler, et al., 2004). This mechanism could be involved in the uptake of suramin into T. brucei that does not require specialized receptors. Trypanosomes cannot synthesise their own fatty acid and cholesterol de novo hence LDL uptake is essential for propagation (Coppens I, et al., 2000). It does not make any worse however in procyclic form, uptake of suramin is through receptor mediated endocytosis and not coupled with LDL uptake (Pal A, et al., 2002). Suramin involves inhibition of various glycolytic enzymes, effects rates of respiration as aerobic glycolysis is closely related with it in bloodstream forms (Fairlamb AH, et al., 1980, Opperdoes, F.R. et al., 1989). Diminished growth rate of trypanosome in vivo is a consequence of decrease in respiration (Fairlamb AH, et al., 1980). Suramin is also used as veterinary trypanocide; report on resistance in T. evansi that infects animals is reported (El Rayah et al., 1999, Zhou, J.L. et al., 2004). Some cases have been described of drug resistance when suramin is used against Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense in humans (W ´ery, M., 1994). Suramin reduced sensitivity towards T. b. rhodesiense (Bacchi et al., 1990) and failure of treatment up to 25-30% observed (P ´epin and Milord, 1994, Burri, C et al., 2004). Failures of treatment are common due to misdiagnosed late stage infection (Burri et al., 2004). De Koning argued one of the reasons of suramin resistance is associated with reduction in drug uptake; molecule is large and highly charged which plasma membrane transporter takes up. Role of apolipoprotein L-1 and haptoglobin-related protein T. evansi affects mainly domesticated animals such as camels, cattle and water buffalo, spread by mechanical transmission of infected blood through insect such as tabanid flies. Due to these, it spread apart from sub-Saharan Africa to South America, North America and Asia. Normally humans are resistant to animal trypanosomes, immunity against T.brucei brucei is due to trypanolytic activity of an apolipoprotein L-1 (APOL-1) bound to high density lipoprotein (HDL) (Vanhamme L. et al., 2003). Previously it was concluded that trypanolytic activity in normal human serum was due to immunoglobin M (Aaronovitch, S. Terry, R. J. 1972). Later in 1973, Hawking and colleagues resolute there were two trypanolyic factors. These two factors differ in their activity (in vivo and vitro), molecular mass, quantity in serum and sensitivity to antagonists (Hawking et al., 1973b). HDL was identified as trypanolyic factor by Rifkin in 1978, she also characterised the two trypanolyic factors determined by Hawking (Rifkin, M. R. 1978b). Trypanolyic factors in human serum shows inhomogeneous properties (Tomlinson et al., 1995; Raper et al., 1996b). Both TLF are a subset of HDLs commonly referred to as HDL3 (Lorenz et al., 1995), contain haptoglobin-related protein (Hpr) (Smith et al., 1995) and APOL-1 (Vanhamme, L. et al., 2003).TLF-1 is a 500 kDa lipid rich while TLF-2,1000 kDa protein complex containing IgM, lipid poor HDL particle (Raper, J. et al., 1999; Lugli, E.B. et al., 2004). Apolipop rotein A-1 (APOA-1) is a component of TLF-1(Smith et al., 1995) and, although previously reported that APOA-1 could not detected in TLF-2(Tomlinson, S. et al., 1995), is a component of TLF-2 (Raper, J. et al., 1999). Previously unknown proteins, human cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide (hCAP18), glycosylphosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase D (GPI-PLD) and paraoxonase are associated with TLF-1(Smith AB et al., 1995; Lugil E et al., 2004). APOA-1 suggests a role in trypanolysis later controversial report supporting a lytic role (Gillett, M. Owen, J. 1992a) or not favor lytic role (Rifkin, 1991; Seed et al., 1993). Later it was confirmed that APOA-1 was not toxic (Tytler, 1995) but may indirectly play role of trypanolytic (Owen et al., 1996). For trypanosomes, HDLs contain 16,000-65,000 binding site per cell having moderate affinity (Gillett, M. Owen, J. 1992b). However, binding of lytic factor, TLF-1 appeared to involve two binding site, low affinity have 65,000 and high affinity 350 binding sites (Drain et al., 2001). Host macromolecules, interact with bloodstream trypanosomes, transferrin (Borst, P.1991) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (Coppens, I et al., 1987) through receptor-mediated endocytosis occur at the flagellar pocket of trypanosome (Gull, K., 2003). APOL-1 is a bacterial colicins and Bcl-2 family members like protein containing pore forming domain as well as a region for the membrane insertion of it (Pà ©rez -Morga D et al., 2005, Pays E et al., 2006). APOL-1 is taken up in the parasite by endocytosis, able to kill by the parasite by forming anion selective pores in the lysosomal membrane of parasite, this pore allows the influx of chloride ions into the lysosome, subsequent cell death as a consequence of entry of water and induces uncontrolled osmotic swelling of vacuole ((Pà ©rez-Morga D et al., 2005; Pays E et al., 2006; B. Vanhollebeke et al., 2007a). APOL-1 could not be involved in apoptosis but in programmed cell death (B. Vanhollebeke et al., 2006a). Resistance of T.brucei rhodesiense and T.brucei gambiense to APOL-1 is developed which allows these parasites to infect and cause HAT. Single protein termed serum resistance-associated protein (SRA) is main reason of resistance of T.brucei rhodesiense to APOL-1.SRAP interacts strongly with APOL-1 and provide specific resistance to T.brucei rhodesiense (Xong HV et al., 1998; Gibson WC, 2005). T brucei gambiense is also resistant to APOL-1; mechanism is not understood (Pays E et al., 2006). Indian case with T. evansi infection, human serum devoid of APOL-1, reason for the absence was due to independent frameshift mutation in both APOL-1 alleles (B. Vanhollebeke et al., 2006b). Another HDL component, plays a toxic role for full trypanolytic activity of normal human serum, haptoglobin-related protein (Hpr).Indian case has normal concentration of Hpr bound HDL but short of trypanolytic activity. Hpr is a haemoglobin (Hb) binding protein induces, within acidic lysosome of T.b.brucei, Fenton like reaction between H202 and iron that lead to formation of free hydroxyl radicals, which would prompt the reaction of lipid peroxidation of lysosomal membrane (Smith AB et al., 1995; Hager KM et al., 1994; Bishop JR et al., 2001; Justin Widener et al., 2007). Nevertheless action of trypanolysis of Hpr and APOL-1, biological function is not clear. Optimal trypanolytic activity requires presence of both APOL-1 and Hpr on same subset of HDL particle (B. Vanhollebeke et al., 2007b). Vanhollebeke et al. (2007b) reported trypanosome survival assay in normal as well as mutant human sera. Survival of trypanosomes occurs in human serum devoid of APOL-1 and fetal calf serum (FCS). FCS is nonlytic and contains neither APOL-1 nor Hpr. Human serum deficient of Hpr and haptoglobin (Hp) but with normal HDL b